Russia

Policy

2010-2011

Federal Law No. 5663‑I “On Space Activities” (1993)

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Although enacted in 1993, Federal Law No. 5663‑I remained highly relevant in 2010–2011 as the foundational framework for Russian space policy. Article 22 of the law explicitly required that all space activities account for “permissible levels of man-made contamination of the environment and near-Earth space.” This provision established an early, legally binding acknowledgment of the environmental impacts of space operations, particularly the accumulation of orbital debris.

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• Article 22 served as the primary legal instrument for debris mitigation in Russian space law, ensuring that considerations of environmental safety and sustainability were formally integrated into mission planning.

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• The law created a broad, principle-based obligation rather than detailed technical standards, leaving the specifics of debris control to be defined through subsequent regulations and normative documents.

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GOST R 52925‑2008

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The 2008 national standard GOST R 52925 provided more detailed, lifecycle-focused requirements for debris mitigation, translating the principles of Federal Law No. 5663‑I into operational guidance. This standard applied to every phase of a spacecraft’s life, from design and manufacturing to launch and operational planning.

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• During the 2010–2011 period, GOST R 52925 guided engineers and mission planners in reducing debris generation, including designing for post-mission disposal, collision avoidance, and minimizing the release of objects during normal operations.

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• By setting these lifecycle-wide requirements, the standard helped ensure that debris mitigation was not treated as an afterthought but integrated directly into engineering practices and programmatic planning.

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• The standard also established the expectation that operators demonstrate compliance, creating a de facto technical benchmark for regulatory review.

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Federal Law No. 99‑FZ (2011) “On Licensing Certain Types of Activities”

Enacted in 2011, Federal Law No. 99‑FZ introduced a licensing regime for space activities, linking legal authorization to compliance with technical and environmental standards. This law represented a key shift in the enforcement of debris mitigation, moving from advisory guidance to a legally binding requirement.

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• Licensing authorities were empowered to condition approvals for space operations on adherence to debris mitigation standards, effectively making compliance a prerequisite for legal activity.

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• By connecting the GOST standards and the principles of Federal Law No. 5663‑I to the licensing process, Federal Law No. 99‑FZ ensured that operators could not legally ignore debris mitigation without risking regulatory penalties.

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• This integration of technical standards into enforceable legal obligations marked a critical evolution in Russia’s approach to orbital debris management, establishing both accountability and a formal mechanism for oversight.

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Together, these laws and standards during 2010–2011 created a layered framework for debris mitigation: Federal Law No. 5663‑I established the legal principle, GOST R 52925‑2008 provided detailed technical guidance, and Federal Law No. 99‑FZ linked compliance to enforceable licensing requirements. This combination represented a systematic approach to reducing the creation of space debris while ensuring that operators were held legally accountable.

2012-2013

In 2012, researchers at key Roscosmos institutions, including TsNIIMash, conducted comprehensive assessments of the orbital environment and published findings that underscored the growing threat posed by space debris. These assessments highlighted several critical points:

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• The increasing accumulation of uncontrolled debris posed a direct risk to operational spacecraft, satellites, and other orbital infrastructure, raising concerns about potential collisions and cascading debris events.

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• The studies framed debris mitigation not only as a technical challenge but also as a strategic concern, emphasizing that unchecked debris growth could have long-term implications for Russia’s space capabilities and national security interests.

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• The researchers called for proactive measures to address debris creation and propagation, advocating for the integration of mitigation strategies into mission planning and spacecraft design.

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Building on these technical assessments, April 2013 saw the publication of the high-level policy document titled Fundamentals of State Policy in Space Activities (up to 2030 and beyond). Although non-statutory, this document represented a significant step in formalizing Russia’s approach to space sustainability. Key aspects of the policy included:

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• Recognition of space debris prevention as a formal state objective, highlighting its importance alongside other strategic priorities in national space activities.

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• An emphasis on international cooperation, acknowledging that addressing orbital debris required coordination with other space-faring nations and alignment with global standards and guidelines.

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• Directives for Roscosmos, in coordination with relevant federal ministries, to systematically integrate debris considerations into space program planning, budget allocations, regulatory oversight, and operational practices.

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Together, the 2012 research assessments and the 2013 policy framework marked a period of heightened awareness and structured action within Russian space governance. They reflected a shift from viewing debris purely as a technical problem to recognizing it as a strategic and policy-level challenge, laying the groundwork for subsequent mitigation efforts in the following decade.

2014-2015

2014: Growing National Attention to Orbital Debris

In 2014, national discourse in Russia began to increasingly focus on the challenges posed by orbital debris. High-level discussions explored the strategic, economic, and security implications of the growing accumulation of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO). Among the proposals considered were multi-billion-ruble programs aimed at developing active debris removal systems. These proposals encompassed both technological solutions, such as robotic capture mechanisms, harpoon or net systems, and de-orbit propulsion technologies, and policy measures to incentivize compliance by satellite operators.

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During this period, active debris removal (ADR) was formally recognized as a policy goal. The designation of ADR as a strategic objective marked a shift from passive debris mitigation—focused primarily on designing satellites to minimize post-mission debris—to a more interventionist approach capable of directly reducing existing orbital debris. This shift laid the groundwork for subsequent planning and resource allocation within Roscosmos and related research institutions.

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Legislative Action: Federal Law No. 215‑FZ (13 July 2015)
The reorganization of Russia’s space sector through Federal Law No. 215‑FZ represented a critical milestone. The law established Roscosmos as a State Corporation, formalizing its structure and granting it statutory authority over key aspects of national space activity. Notably, the legislation explicitly assigned Roscosmos several obligations related to orbital debris management:

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• Oversight of technogenic pollution in space, including monitoring and reporting on debris accumulation and risks.

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• Supervision of operator compliance with existing debris mitigation standards, ensuring that satellite operators adhere to end-of-life disposal and collision avoidance protocols.

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• Integration of debris mitigation responsibilities into broader national space policy, emphasizing the intersection of operational, environmental, and security considerations.

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By codifying these responsibilities, the law signaled a move toward centralized governance of debris mitigation and strengthened Roscosmos’ role as both regulator and implementer in managing the long-term sustainability of Russian space activities.

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2015 Policy Signals: Security and Strategic Implications

In 2015, Roscosmos experts began publicly highlighting the potential national security risks associated with orbital debris. Officials warned that uncontrolled debris could not only threaten the safety of Russian satellites and crewed missions but also complicate defense and intelligence operations reliant on space-based assets.

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Key points from these policy statements included:

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• The recognition that even small debris fragments could cause catastrophic damage to critical satellites, amplifying the strategic vulnerability of Russia’s space infrastructure.

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• The suggestion that debris accumulation could constrain future launch opportunities, potentially affecting both commercial and military payloads.

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• Calls for closer coordination between space operations, defense planning, and scientific research to develop effective debris management strategies, reflecting an early integration of technical and strategic considerations.

2016-2018

During 2016, the Federal Space Program began integrating debris mitigation more explicitly into both strategic planning and mission authorization processes. This marked a significant step in formalizing how orbital debris considerations would influence spacecraft design, launch approvals, and operational oversight. Debris mitigation was no longer treated as an ancillary concern but as a core element in planning missions across all federal space initiatives.

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Funding during this period was allocated to several key areas:

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• Research and monitoring: Investment supported both ground-based and space-based observation systems to track existing orbital debris. The emphasis was on improving the accuracy of debris catalogs, enhancing predictive models of collision risk, and developing early warning capabilities for high-risk conjunctions.

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• Lifecycle-compliant spacecraft design: Spacecraft were increasingly required to incorporate design features aimed at reducing debris creation, such as fail-safe mechanisms, redundancy in critical systems, and materials that minimized fragmentation risks in the event of a collision. Design guidelines also began to stress end-of-life disposal strategies, including controlled deorbiting or transfer to long-term graveyard orbits.

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• Alignment with international norms: Funding supported programs that ensured U.S. spacecraft and mission planning adhered to emerging international standards and best practices, such as those promulgated by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). This included compliance with voluntary guidelines for debris mitigation, active removal technologies, and standardization of orbital insertion practices to minimize congestion in heavily used orbits.

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International cooperation also expanded during 2016. A notable development was the bilateral agreement with China’s China National Space Administration (CNSA), which focused on debris monitoring and data sharing. This agreement facilitated real-time exchange of orbital tracking information, collaborative analysis of debris risk, and the development of coordinated mitigation strategies to prevent collisions, particularly in high-density low Earth orbit regions.

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2017–2018 Developments

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During 2017 and 2018, attention shifted toward codifying debris mitigation requirements into formal regulatory frameworks. In Russia, this effort was exemplified by the drafting of GOST R 52925‑2018 by Rosstandart and TsNIIMash. This standard concentrated on several critical aspects:

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• Lifecycle obligations: The standard outlined responsibilities for spacecraft operators throughout the operational and post-operational phases of their missions, including monitoring, reporting, and compliance with disposal protocols.

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• End-of-life passivation: Specific guidelines were established to ensure that spacecraft and upper stages were rendered inert at the end of their operational lives. This included measures such as venting residual propellant and discharging batteries to prevent accidental explosions, which are a significant source of debris.

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• Orbital selection: The draft emphasized the importance of choosing orbits that minimize long-term congestion and reduce collision risk, taking into account population density in specific orbital bands and the potential for interference with other operational satellites.

2018-2019

GOST R 52925‑2018, approved on 21 September 2018, replaced the previous 2008 standard governing spacecraft design, operation, and end-of-life management in Russia. The updated standard represented a major alignment with international practices, incorporating the United Nations Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines and ISO 24113, which set global expectations for limiting space debris and ensuring the long-term sustainability of near-Earth orbits.

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Unlike the 2008 standard, which primarily focused on high-level design recommendations, GOST R 52925‑2018 provides specific technical and operational requirements that apply to all spacecraft types—scientific, commercial, and defense. It emphasizes proactive debris mitigation throughout the spacecraft lifecycle, rather than post-mission interventions alone.

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Key elements of the standard include:

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• Prevention of accidental fragmentation:
  Spacecraft must be designed to minimize the risk of unplanned breakups. This includes rigorous testing of structural components, secure containment of pressurized systems, and controlled management of on-board energy sources. The standard specifies acceptable thresholds for residual energy in fuel tanks, batteries, and pressurized vessels to reduce the likelihood of explosions after mission completion.

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• End-of-life passivation:
  Operators are required to safely discharge or vent all remaining energy sources, including propellants, batteries, and other reactive systems, at the end of the spacecraft’s operational life. This measure prevents post-mission explosions that historically contributed significantly to orbital debris populations.

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• Orbit selection and disposal planning:
  The standard requires operators to evaluate operational orbits with respect to long-term sustainability. Disposal planning must consider either controlled deorbiting into Earth’s atmosphere or transfer to a designated “graveyard” orbit in the case of geosynchronous spacecraft. The requirement ensures that inactive satellites do not remain in congested orbital regions, mitigating collision risks for active spacecraft.

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• Lifecycle responsibility:
  Compliance is not limited to a single phase of the mission. Manufacturers, launch providers, and operators share responsibility for mitigation measures from spacecraft design, through operational deployment, and ultimately to decommissioning. Documentation and verification of these measures are required for regulatory approval.

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From 1 January 2019, the standard was incorporated into Roscosmos licensing and oversight procedures, making compliance effectively mandatory for all legally authorized space activities in Russia. Operators were required to submit mitigation plans demonstrating adherence to passivation, disposal, and fragmentation prevention requirements. Noncompliance could impact licensing approval, highlighting the standard’s role as both a technical and regulatory instrument for sustainable space operations.

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Practical compliance measures observed in 2019 included:

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• Controlled venting of residual propellant and battery discharge protocols implemented by Russian satellite operators.

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• Pre-mission documentation of disposal orbits and deorbit strategies submitted to Roscosmos for approval.

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• Structural testing and verification protocols to ensure spacecraft can withstand operational stresses without fragmentation.

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• Lifecycle management plans that assign clear responsibilities for debris mitigation to designers, operators, and ground controllers.

2019-2020

During 2020, Roscosmos, in coordination with associated technical institutes, maintained a structured approach to monitoring compliance with national and international space debris mitigation frameworks. This included a particular focus on adherence to GOST R 52925‑2018, Russia’s national standard for space debris mitigation, which defines technical and procedural requirements for spacecraft design, operational conduct, and post-mission disposal.

Compliance monitoring involved systematic reviews of spacecraft design documents, operational logs, and end-of-life disposal plans to ensure all missions met the prescribed safety and sustainability criteria.

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In parallel, routine reporting was conducted to evaluate adherence to the United Nations Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines. These reports detailed the implementation of debris-reduction measures, such as limiting the release of mission-related objects, ensuring deorbiting of satellites at end-of-life, and minimizing the risk of on-orbit collisions. The reporting process served both as an internal audit mechanism and as a contribution to international transparency efforts, demonstrating Russia’s commitment to responsible space operations.

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International engagement was a key component of 2020 activities. Roscosmos actively participated in forums such as the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC). Participation in these organizations involved both the sharing of national practices and technical data, as well as contributing to the development of best practices for space debris mitigation. These interactions facilitated dialogue on emerging challenges in space traffic management and encouraged collaborative approaches to long-term orbital sustainability.

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Efforts were also made to promote the harmonization of Russian national standards with international space sustainability norms. This included reviewing GOST R 52925‑2018 in the context of evolving international guidelines, identifying areas for alignment, and updating technical recommendations for spacecraft design and mission planning. Through these activities, Russia aimed to ensure that its space operations were consistent with global efforts to reduce orbital debris and enhance the long-term safety of the space environment.

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Key focus areas during this period included:

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• Systematic monitoring and verification of spacecraft compliance with national debris mitigation standards.

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• Preparation and submission of structured reports on UN Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines adherence.

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• Active collaboration with international stakeholders through COPUOS and IADC forums.

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• Harmonization initiatives to align national standards with evolving international norms and recommendations.

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• Strengthening technical and procedural guidance for end-of-life disposal, collision avoidance, and debris reduction in operational planning.

2021

On 2 November 2021, Russia conducted an anti-satellite (ASAT) test in which it destroyed a defunct Russian satellite in low Earth orbit. This deliberate interception produced thousands of debris fragments, many of which posed immediate risks to the International Space Station (ISS) and other operational satellites.

The debris field was tracked by space situational awareness networks, highlighting the long-lasting hazards of such kinetic ASAT demonstrations, as fragments can remain in orbit for years or even decades depending on altitude. The test drew particular attention because it underscored the potential consequences of weaponizing space, beyond immediate geopolitical signaling.

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• The test generated debris traveling at extremely high velocities, capable of causing catastrophic collisions with other spacecraft.

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• Analysts noted that the majority of debris entered highly dispersed orbits, complicating long-term tracking and mitigation efforts.

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• The event reignited international discussions on the vulnerability of space infrastructure to military actions, given the reliance of global communications, navigation, and Earth observation systems on low Earth orbit satellites.

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International Response

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The ASAT test triggered widespread condemnation from the international community. Critics emphasized that such actions exacerbate the already growing problem of space debris and highlight the absence of legally binding frameworks to regulate destructive activities in orbit. Observers stressed that while there are voluntary guidelines, such as those issued by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), there is no enforceable international law that explicitly prohibits debris-generating ASAT tests. The event also raised concerns among commercial satellite operators and space-faring nations about the increasing risks to operational assets and the potential for accidental collisions.

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• Several countries called for immediate discussions to establish norms or treaties limiting debris generation.

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• The test highlighted the limitations of existing space traffic management systems, particularly in predicting and mitigating debris from intentional destruction.

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Russia’s Response

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In the aftermath of criticism, Russia defended its actions by framing the test as a necessary step for national security and space defense capabilities. At the same time, Russian officials proposed the development of international regulations on debris management and standardized space traffic control measures. The government emphasized that proactive coordination could reduce risks and enhance transparency in space operations, even as military space capabilities continued to be demonstrated.

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• Russia reiterated the need for global rules to manage orbital debris, particularly for military-related activities, highlighting the dual-use nature of many satellite systems.

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• The incident served as a catalyst for policy discussions within international forums, reinforcing the idea that debris-generating tests have implications beyond national security, affecting all nations reliant on space-based assets.

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• Analysts noted that Russia’s public call for standardized rules could be interpreted both as an acknowledgment of the risks their own activities pose and as a strategic move to influence the shaping of future international norms.

2022

OST R 25645.167‑2022 (Effective 1 June 2022)

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GOST R 25645.167‑2022, implemented in mid-2022, establishes a framework for the quantitative modeling of artificial object distribution in near-Earth space. This standard provides a systematic approach to understanding and managing the increasing complexity of space operations, particularly in low-Earth orbit (LEO), medium-Earth orbit (MEO), and geostationary orbit (GEO) environments. By formalizing modeling practices, the standard supports a range of operational, regulatory, and safety functions across the space industry.

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The key functionalities of the standard include:

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• Risk Assessment:
  The standard enables the calculation of collision probabilities and interaction risks among space objects. By incorporating statistical models of object density, orbital dynamics, and debris propagation, organizations can more accurately assess potential hazards to active spacecraft and mitigate risks through improved mission planning and maneuvering strategies.

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• Compliance Evaluation:
  GOST R 25645.167‑2022 provides a reference framework for verifying adherence to national and international space regulations. This includes ensuring that satellite operators comply with debris mitigation guidelines, maintain appropriate orbital separation, and implement end-of-life disposal plans for spacecraft. The standard allows authorities and organizations to evaluate operational practices against a consistent set of modeling criteria.

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• Regulatory Monitoring:
  Authorities can leverage the standard to monitor the overall population of artificial objects in near-Earth space. Through quantitative modeling, regulators gain insight into trends in debris accumulation, satellite deployment rates, and adherence to orbital traffic management requirements. This facilitates proactive management of space congestion and informs policy decisions.

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• System-Level Assessment:
  Unlike approaches that focus solely on individual spacecraft, the standard supports comprehensive system-level evaluations. This capability enables a holistic view of space traffic, capturing interactions among multiple spacecraft and debris populations. It allows operators and regulators to assess cumulative risks, identify high-risk orbital regions, and evaluate the broader implications of satellite constellations or new space infrastructure.

2023

In 2023, Roscosmos publicly acknowledged multiple instances of debris avoidance maneuvers executed by the International Space Station (ISS). These maneuvers highlighted both the operational challenges and the safety imperatives associated with managing the increasingly congested orbital environment.

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• Operational Costs and Safety Risks: Each debris avoidance maneuver requires precise coordination between ground control and onboard systems, consuming fuel, crew time, and mission resources. While these maneuvers are effective in preventing potential collisions, they also underscore the tangible risks posed by debris proliferation, including the possibility of damage to critical station components and the subsequent operational delays. These events serve as a stark reminder that orbital debris is not a theoretical concern but a real and immediate threat to long-term station operations.

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• Monitoring and Mitigation Compliance: The maneuvers reinforced the importance of adhering to international debris mitigation guidelines. Continuous monitoring of near-ISS space allows for timely maneuver decisions, but the events also highlighted gaps in predictive modeling and early-warning capabilities. The 2023 incidents underscored the need for comprehensive compliance with both national and international standards, emphasizing that even a single high-velocity debris fragment can necessitate costly and complex responses.

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Policy Implications:

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• Investment in Tracking Systems: In response to these events, there has been a renewed push for increased funding and technological advancement in space situational awareness. Enhancing radar, optical, and space-based tracking systems is critical to providing more precise data on object trajectories, reducing false alarms, and improving the timeliness of collision avoidance decisions.

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• Operator Responsibilities: The 2023 maneuvers also brought attention to the obligations of spacecraft operators to actively manage risk. This includes not only tracking their own objects and ensuring compliance with disposal and mitigation protocols but also cooperating with international partners to minimize debris generation. Operators are increasingly being held accountable for proactive measures that reduce collision risk, reflecting a broader shift toward shared responsibility in maintaining a sustainable orbital environment.

2024-2025